Overview
Middle Chinese (中古汉语) refers to the historical form of the Chinese language spoken from approximately the 6th to the 10th centuries CE, spanning the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui Dynasty, Tang Dynasty, and early Song Dynasty. This period represents a crucial transition between Old Chinese and Modern Chinese, serving as the foundation for all contemporary Chinese dialects. The study of Middle Chinese constitutes a branch of Chinese historical phonology, as no audio recordings from this era exist, requiring linguists to reconstruct its pronunciation through indirect evidence.
History
The history of Middle Chinese is deeply connected to the political and cultural developments of China. During the Zhou Dynasty, a standardized form of language known as Yayan (雅言), essentially Classical Chinese based on written texts, emerged as a lingua franca. This Yayan was considered to be descended from the language of the Xia Dynasty, with its standard pronunciation based around the Luoyang region, which remained the center of linguistic prestige through the Tang and Song dynasties.
The fall of the Western Jin Dynasty during the Yongjia Disaster (永嘉丧乱) led to the largest migration in Chinese history, with the cultural center shifting southward. The Eastern Jin Dynasty established its capital at Jiankang (modern Nanjing), leading to a fusion of the Luoyang accent and local Wu dialects to form a new standard. While northern regimes continued to use Luoyang pronunciation as their standard, southern regimes generally adopted Jiankang pronunciation. The Luoyang pronunciation of this period differed significantly from earlier forms due to the influence of northern nomadic peoples.
The Sui Dynasty reunified China with its capital at Chang'an (modern Xi'an). Emperor Wen of Sui, seeking to restore Han cultural traditions, commissioned Lu Fayan and others to compile the Qieyun (《切韵》), a rhyming dictionary that established a more standardized pronunciation based on the Luoyang and Jiankang dialects. The Qieyun represented a pioneering effort in standardizing Chinese pronunciation, with its basic standard being the Jiankang dialect, indicating a cultural shift southward.
The Tang Dynasty later established the Tangyun (《唐韵》) based on the Qieyun as the official standard pronunciation for officials and imperial examinations. Despite the political center being in Chang'an, the local dialect did not achieve the same prestige as the standardized Tangyun, which became known as Guanhua (官话, or 'official speech'). The Tangyun and later Song Dynasty's Guangyun (《广韵》) were essentially expansions of the Qieyun without fundamental changes to the phonological system.
Key Information
| Feature | Description |
|---|---|
| Time Period | 6th-10th centuries CE (Southern and Northern Dynasties through early Song) |
| Standard Pronunciation | Based on Luoyang and Jiankang dialects, formalized in the Qieyun |
| Writing System | Primarily Regular Script (楷书), with Running Script (行书) and Cursive Script (草书) for informal writing |
| Direction | Vertical writing from top to bottom, with lines starting from the right |
| Major Dialects | Northern dialects (centered around Chang'an and Luoyang), Southern dialects (including Jiankang/Wu dialects) |
| Foreign Influences | Incorporated some vocabulary from neighboring languages through cultural exchange |
Cultural Significance
Middle Chinese holds immense cultural significance as the linguistic foundation of all modern Chinese varieties. The Qieyun and its successors represented a unifying force in a politically fragmented period, establishing a pronunciation standard that transcended regional boundaries. This standardization facilitated literary exchange and administrative efficiency across the vast Chinese territory.
The study of Middle Chinese phonology has revealed profound insights into Chinese historical linguistics and cultural development. The preservation of Middle Chinese features in various modern dialects, particularly in southern China, provides valuable evidence for historical migration patterns and cultural exchange. For instance, the complete preservation of Middle Chinese final stops (-p, -t, -k) in Yue dialects (Cantonese) and Wu dialects demonstrates the conservative nature of these language varieties.
Middle Chinese also represents a transitional period in Chinese literature, with the gap between spoken and written language beginning to widen. While formal literature continued to use Classical Chinese grammar and vocabulary, more popular genres such as Bianwen (变文, 'transformation texts') and Quzi Ci (曲子词, 'song lyrics') increasingly reflected contemporary spoken language.
Modern Status
Modern linguistic research on Middle Chinese has made significant advances since Bernhard Karlgren's pioneering work in the early 20th century. Contemporary scholars continue to refine reconstructions of Middle Chinese phonology through analysis of rhyme books, rhyme tables, dialect comparisons, and foreign transliterations.
Several modern Chinese dialects preserve significant features of Middle Chinese:
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Shanghai Chongming dialect: Maintains one of the most complete preservation of Middle Chinese features, with 35 initial consonants, 55 finals (nearly double that of Standard Mandarin), and eight tones (each of the four Middle Chinese tones divided into 'level' and 'oblique' varieties). It preserves ancient voiced obstruent consonants and a complete set of entering tone finals.
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Jiangsu Changzhou dialect: Fully preserves the ancient system of voiced obstruent consonants, distinguishing between voiced and voiceless counterparts that have merged in Mandarin. It also maintains entering tones and numerous Middle Chinese vocabulary items.
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Zhejiang Hangzhou dialect: Features four tones with seven distinctions, preserving many Middle Chinese pronunciations. For example, the character '斜' in Du Mu's poem "Mountain Journey" is pronounced 'xia' in Hangzhou dialect, matching its Middle Chinese reading.
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Guangdong dialect (Cantonese): Preserves many Middle Chinese features, including a complete set of entering tone finals, six final consonant contrasts, and a complex tone system with six or nine tones (depending on classification). It also retains syntactic features such as postposed attributives (e.g., '人客' for 'guest').
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Hakka dialect: Maintains the Zhongzhou (Central Plains) pronunciation with minimal change over a millennium. It preserves many Middle Chinese vocabulary items, phonological features (such as the absence of retroflex consonants), and entering tone pronunciations.
References
Karlgren, Bernhard. Analytic Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1923.
Pulleyblank, Edwin G. Middle Chinese: A Study in Historical Phonology. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1984.
Li, Fang-Kuei. Studies in the Historical Phonology of Asian Languages. Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, 1975.
References
- Karlgren, Bernhard. Analytic Dictionary of Chinese and Sino-Japanese. Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1923.
- Pulleyblank, Edwin G. Middle Chinese: A Study in Historical Phonology. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1984.
- Li, Fang-Kuei. Studies in the Historical Phonology of Asian Languages. Taipei: Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica, 1975.