Bronze Ware

Overview

Bronze ware refers to artifacts made from bronze, an alloy primarily of copper and tin, with possible traces of other metals. In Chinese culture, bronze ware holds exceptional historical and artistic significance, representing the technological and cultural achievements of ancient Chinese civilizations from the Neolithic period to approximately 2000 years ago. These artifacts served various practical functions including cooking, eating, drinking, music, warfare, and ritual ceremonies, evolving from utilitarian objects to powerful symbols of political authority and spiritual significance.

History

Global Context

The earliest known copper artifacts discovered at Çayönü Tepe in eastern Turkey date back 10,000 years and were made from naturally occurring copper that had been annealed. These represent the world's earliest copper artifacts, created without smelting. Over the next 2,000 years, copper appeared beyond the core regions of eastern Turkey and northern Iraq, as evidenced by copper beads found at Tell Ramad in southwestern Syria and Ali Kosh in southwestern Iran. By 8,000 years ago, copper technology had spread to the Mehrgarh region in central Pakistan.

Meanwhile, crucibles for melting or smelting copper were discovered in central Turkey, marking the emergence of true copper smelting technology, though this remains a subject of scholarly debate. Recent research by the Institute of Archaeology at University College London suggests that bronze metallurgy began in southeastern Europe as early as 7,000 years ago, potentially challenging the model of a single origin point for copper smelting across Eurasia. The copper ingots and slag found in Serbia, confirmed to be from artificial smelting, represent the world's earliest known "bronze smelting" technology.

Around 6,000 years ago, copper smelting technology in eastern Turkey had become relatively mature and spread to surrounding regions, with low-level arsenical copper becoming common. By 5,500 years ago, there was intentional production of copper alloys including arsenical copper. Around 5,000 years ago, tin bronze appeared in Southwest Asia, with bronze casting emerging in Central Europe and Central Asia a few centuries later, marking a significant leap in metallurgical technology.

On November 8, 2022, Italian archaeologists announced the discovery of 24 remarkably preserved bronze statues dating back over 2,300 years found in the thermal mud of Tuscany, described as "rewriting history." Experts called this one of the most important bronze discoveries in ancient Mediterranean history since 1972.

Development in China

Archaeological evidence indicates that bronze technology in China also developed early, with early copper artifacts or related findings discovered in the remains of the Majiayao, Dawenkou, Longshan, and slightly later Qijia cultures of the Neolithic period. The oldest known copper artifact in China is a brass fragment unearthed at the Jiangzhai site in Shaanxi, determined through analysis to be from smelting and dating back 6,500-6,700 years. The single-edged bronze knife unearthed at a Majiayao culture site in Gansu is known as China's oldest bronze artifact and also the world's oldest bronze knife. Carbon-14 dating places it at approximately 5,000 years old. This 12.5 cm knife was cast in a single mold and lacks features like grooves and ring handles found on more mature later knives, holding typical representative significance in the history of tool development.

While Turkey may have been the earliest region to master metal smelting technology, China followed closely behind. Although China's mastery of bronze smelting technology came slightly later, in terms of scale of use, casting techniques, artistic forms, and variety, no region's copperware can compare with ancient Chinese bronze ware. This is one reason why ancient Chinese bronze occupies a unique position in world art history and has attracted widespread attention.

As primitive society developed, the ding (cauldron) evolved from a cooking utensil for boiling food into a ritual vessel, becoming a symbol of power and wealth. The number of ding reflected one's status, while their weight marked the extent of one's power. During the Shang and Zhou dynasties, Chinese bronze ware formed unique造型 (modeling) series: containers, musical instruments, weapons, chariot fittings, and more. Bronze ware was covered with taotie (glutton monster) patterns, kui (dragon-like) patterns, or combined human and animal mask designs, forming spiritual patterns that reflected humanity's transition from primitive ignorance to civilization.

Xia Dynasty Period

The Xia Dynasty is China's legendary earliest slave dynasty, historically dated from approximately 2070 BCE (Yu passing power to Qi, establishing hereditary rule) to around 1600 BCE (overthrown by Tang of Shang at Mingtiao). The Erlitou site in Yanshi, Henan is generally recognized by archaeologists as the location of the Xia capital. Bronze ware from the Xia Dynasty represents a period of rapid development in Chinese bronze history, with bronze casting workshops at the Erlitou site covering an area of over 10,000 square meters. Bronze smelting artifacts have been unearthed from phases two to four, with smelting traces also found in phase one bronze casting remains.

Currently, casting workshop sites from phases two to four have been excavated, surrounded by numerous clay molds, crucibles, furnace walls, copper slag, charcoal, as well as some small bronze pieces and a few large ones. Bronze ware is one of the main artifacts unearthed at the Erlitou site, including ritual vessels, tools, and weapons.

Early Shang Dynasty (16th-15th century BCE)

This period corresponds to the Erligang culture of the Shang Dynasty. The carbon-14 dating of charcoal from the rammed earth of the Shang City in Zhengzhou dates to 1620 BCE, coinciding with the establishment of the Shang Dynasty by Tang. However, the lower boundary of the Erligang culture is not yet clear. Erligang remains are divided into upper and lower layers, with differences in bronze ware between them not being stylistic but rather in the greater development of vessel types in the upper layer.

Many early Shang Dynasty bronze pieces have been unearthed in Zhengzhou, as Zhenghou Shang City was the early capital of the dynasty. Important finds include those from Erligang, Baijiazhuang, Zhangzhainan Street, Yangzhuang, Nanguanwai, Mingong Road, and Erqi Road, mostly distributed south and southeast of the city. Bronze burial grounds have also been found northeast and west of the city. Numerous early Shang Dynasty bronze pieces have been discovered in northern Henan, with significant finds also at Panlongcheng in Huangpi, Hubei; Bogang in Jiashan, Anhui; and Wucheng in Qingjiang, Jiangxi.

The bronze vessels from these sites and tombs include: ding (cauldrons), large ding, large square ding, li (tripod cooking vessels), yan (steamer), bu (wine container), gui (food container), jue (wine cup), guanliu jue (tube-spouted wine cup), gu (tall wine cup), jia (wine cup), lei (wine container), handle-lipped pot, gourd-shaped handle-lipped pot, central pillar dish, and pan (water basin), including categories for cooking, drinking, and water vessels. Earlier vessel types are relatively simple, but sets of drinking vessels including jue, gu, and jia had already become common. The upper layer Erligang bronze vessels show more developed forms, and the system of Shang bronze ritual vessels had already taken shape.

Bronze vessels from the lower Erligang layer generally have very thin walls, while some from the upper layer have considerably thicker walls. Early Shang Dynasty bronze vessels have distinctive shapes: in ding and li vessels, one of the three feet must be perpendicular to one handle, creating a visual imbalance. The columnar feet of ding and jia vessels are conical and connected to the vessel body, as the technique for completely sealing the core mold during casting had not yet been mastered. Square ding are enormous, with the container portion forming a deep square bucket shape, completely different from the rectangular槽-shaped (groove-shaped) square ding of the later Yin ruins period. Jue vessels maintain the Erlitou cultural style, uniformly flat-bottomed with narrow, long spouts. In addition to flat-bottomed jia, bag-footed jia also appeared. Ring-footed vessels like gu, zun, bu, and lei all have large + shaped holes, with those from the upper Erligang layer sometimes having these + shaped holes become large square holes. Some have several notches along the edge of the ring foot, examples of which have been unearthed in Zhengzhou and Panlongcheng, Huangpi. The semi-sealed bag-footed he with a tube spout set diagonally on top and a large handle at the back is distinctive to this period. Lei vessels all have narrow lips, high necks, and shoulders, with relatively tall forms. Early Shang Dynasty pots with handles come in two types: long-necked, small-mouthed, drum-bellied forms and small-mouthed vessels shaped like suspended gourds; some small-mouthed vessels without tall necks also lack handles.

The main decorative motif of early Shang Dynasty bronze vessels is the animal mask pattern, composed of bold, curved, and swirling lines, all being abstracted patterns. Except for the large, round eyes serving as symbols, other stripes do not specifically represent various parts of the object. Most decorations are flat relief, with occasional main features showing high relief. High relief animal head decorations already appear on the shoulders of zun and lei vessels from the upper Erligang layer. All animal masks or other animal patterns lack雷纹 (thunder pattern) backgrounds, a characteristic of this period. The geometric patterns of early Shang Dynasty bronze are extremely simple, including some rough thunder patterns, single or multiple rows of bead patterns, and the emergence of nipple patterns. Early Shang Dynasty bronze vessels rarely bear inscriptions; previously thought individual turtle shapes were characters, but they are actually decorative patterns rather than text.

Analysis of the alloy composition of early Shang Dynasty bronze vessels shows copper content ranging from 67.01% to 91.99%, tin content from 3.48% to 13.64%, and lead content from 0.1% to 24.76%. The composition is not very stable, but the high lead content maintains good fluidity of the molten copper, suitable for the工艺要求 (technical requirements) of the thin-walled early Shang bronze vessels.

Mid-Shang Dynasty (15th-13th century BCE)

Between the Erligang culture period and the Yin ruins culture period, several groups of bronze vessels have been unearthed. These vessels have certain characteristics of the early Shang period but show more evolution; they also mark the beginning of certain characteristics of Yin ruins period bronze vessels. Typical examples are the bronze vessels unearthed from the lower tombs at Taixi in Gaocheng, Hebei; those from the Shang Dynasty tomb at Liujihe in Pinggu, Beijing; and those from Funan and Feixi in Anhui. Dongqiao in Lingxi, western Henan, has also yielded such bronzes. Some vessels of this type have been found in the first phase of Yin ruins culture, such as the group of bronze vessels from tomb 232 at Xiaotun and some from tombs 331 and 333. However, such vessels are not commonly found in Yin ruins, while some in other regions are more typical and refined than those in Yin ruins. No major Shang urban center for producing such vessels has yet been identified, as the capitals before Pan庚's move to Yin were at Yan, earlier at Pi and Xiang. However, these bronze vessels from the period after Erligang but before mature Yin ruins culture objectively exist. Because these bronze vessels have transitional characteristics from early to late periods, some scholars classify them as belonging to the Erligang period, while others consider them early Yin ruins culture. The distribution of these bronze vessels is relatively widespread, yet their production center was not at Yin, making it necessary to define a mid-Shang Dynasty period after Erligang culture and before mature Yin ruins culture. The upper boundary of this period is difficult to determine, with the lower boundary around before King Wu Ding's reign.

Vessel shapes close to the early period include jue, gu, and jia. Although the jue tail resembles early forms, the spout has widened, and round-bodied jue vessels appear for the first time. In addition to hollow conical feet, jia vessels now have T-shaped feet, with bases often bulging downward, and flat bases becoming rare. Although wide-shouldered large-mouthed zun appeared in the early period, this vessel type developed significantly during this time, with massive and majestic forms like the Dragon and Tiger Zun from Funan and the Animal Mask Zun, which never appeared in the early Shang period. The bu vessel type also developed during this period, with the Animal Mask Bu from Gaocheng being a typical example. The tall lei vessels of the early period evolved into a form with lower proportions and broader shoulders during this time, with the Giant Animal Mask Lei in the Palace Museum collection being a typical example. The + shaped and square holes on ring-footed vessels have shrunk compared to the early period. A prominent change in ding and li vessels is that one ear no longer opposes a foot, creating an imbalance, but rather the three feet and two ears are symmetrical, becoming the fixed format for all subsequent ding. However, the method of suspending and sealing the core mold during casting had not been completely solved, so hollow ding feet still connected to the vessel body.

Decorations fall into two categories: one is the refinement of the deformed animal patterns of the Erligang period, where originally bold lines become finer and denser, as seen in the Animal Mask Ding from Pinggu and the jia and jue from Feixi. The animal mask main motifs on the Dragon and Tiger Zun from Funan and the Bogang Zun from Jiashan are more refined, while the animal masks on the ring feet maintain early structures and styles. The second category is the emergence of animal mask patterns composed of dense thunder patterns and neatly arranged feather patterns. Such animal mask patterns often have protruding eyes. If not in high relief, neither the head nor the body shows clear distinction. Examples include the Bu from Gaocheng and the large Lei in the Palace Museum collection, which already employ more high relief decorative elements, but the outlines are rounded, different from the sharply defined relief lines of the late period.

Mid-Shang Dynasty bronze vessels generally maintain the tradition of not casting inscriptions, but individual vessels have been found with clan insignias of the vessel owner, but no posthumous titles of ancestral sacrifices have been discovered.

Late Shang Dynasty (13th-11th century BCE)

This period extends from King Wu Ding to King Di Xin. The archaeological分期 (periodization) of Yin ruins culture generally adopts Zou Heng's four-phase theory: Phase 1 from Pan Geng to Xiao Yi; Phase 2 from Wu Ding to Zu Jia; Phase 3 from Xin Ding to Wen Ding; Phase 4 from Di Yi to Di Xin. Later discoveries have largely not exceeded these boundaries. For Yin ruins bronze vessels, Zhang Changshou's three-phase theory is often used: Phase 1 from Pan Geng to Wu Ding; Phase 2 from Zu Geng to Kang Ding; Phase 3 from Wu Yi to Di Xin. Other classification schemes also exist.

If counted from the later part of Wu Ding's reign to Di Xin, the Late Shang period may have been close to 200 years or slightly less. Within such a long period, it can be further divided into early and late phases.

1. Early Late Shang Period: New vessel types include fangyi (square ritual wine container), zhi (small wine cup), and gong (animal-shaped wine container). Square vessels developed significantly, with nearly all drinking vessels being square. In terms of decoration, animal images became more specific, some even realistic, with main patterns and background patterns clearly distinguished. Background patterns are often fine thunder patterns, creating strong contrast with main patterns. Main patterns mostly use high relief techniques, with styles ranging to rounded to sharp. Inscriptions are mostly one or two characters, being clan insignias of the vessel owner. In terms of vessel shapes, ding showed considerable variation, with分档 (partitioned) ding appearing in addition to conventional styles. Square ding all have槽形长方 (groove-shaped rectangular) forms with short, thick columnar feet. Gui vessels remain earless, with shallower bodies and the maximum diameter moving upward. Gu vessels develop toward slender forms, with喇叭口扩展 (expanding trumpet mouths), and large cross-shaped openwork degenerating into cross-holes, either penetrating or not. Flat-bodied jue decreased, while round-bodied jue became popular. Changes in jia include the first appearance of animal head decorations on the jia board, with noticeably higher three feet. Ge (dagger-axe) appeared with胡带穿 (flange with holes).

2. Late Late Shang Period: In terms of vessel types, shoulderless zun and flat-bodied you are typical new forms, with horse bits and other chariot fittings appearing for the first time. Most vessel types continue from the early Late Shang period. This period features the most developed decorations, with artistic decoration reaching its peak. Animal mask patterns dominated by animals and supernatural beings developed unprecedentedly. Decorations not only appear on the vessel body but also on bottoms not easily visible. The overall style of patterns is solemn and majestic. This period saw the emergence of longer inscriptions in the form of records, though rarely exceeding three or four dozen characters. Inscriptions are finely cast, with content including clan insignias, ancestral sacrifices, rewards, military campaigns, and more. In terms of vessel shapes, in addition to columnar feet, hoof-shaped feet appeared on ding; round ding were more common, with straight ears slightly flaring outward. The biggest change in gui was the rapid popularity of double-eared gui. Gu basically resemble the early phase, still slender-bodied with trumpet mouths. Jue changed little, remaining round-bodied with flat-bottomed jue disappearing and jue columns moving backward. Jia still shows animal head decorations, continuing the popularity of bag-footed jia, but with lower, wider bodies and thick columns. Ge mostly have flanges with one or two holes.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

Chinese bronze ware, particularly from the Shang and Zhou dynasties, holds profound cultural significance. These artifacts evolved from practical objects to powerful symbols of political authority and spiritual significance. The ding (cauldron), initially a cooking utensil, gradually transformed into a ritual vessel representing power and wealth. The number of ding reflected one's status, while their weight marked the extent of one's power.

Bronze vessels from the Shang and Zhou dynasties formed unique造型 (modeling) series: containers, musical instruments, weapons, chariot fittings, and more. They were adorned with intricate patterns including taotie (glutton monster), kui (dragon-like), and combined human and animal mask designs, forming spiritual patterns that reflected humanity's transition from primitive ignorance to civilization. These decorative motifs often carried religious and cosmological significance, with the taotie pattern particularly associated with ritual communication with ancestral spirits and deities.

The inscriptions found on many bronze vessels, especially from the late Shang and Zhou periods, provide invaluable historical information about lineage, military campaigns, rituals, and royal decrees. These bronze inscriptions represent some of the earliest systematic writing in China and crucial documents for understanding ancient Chinese history, religion, and society.

Modern Status

Today, ancient Chinese bronze ware is highly valued both culturally and economically. These artifacts are recognized as precious cultural relics, with national policies and regulations in place to protect them. The circulation of bronze ware is strictly controlled. On the market, only two categories of bronze ware can legally circulate: those unearthed before 1949 with clear provenance and documented history; and those repatriated from overseas.

As a result, the domestic market for bronze ware has been relatively subdued, with most transactions occurring privately. Chinese collectors have entered the international auction market only in the last five years or so. Bronze ware remains one of the most recognized categories among senior collectors.

By the late Eastern Han Dynasty, ceramic ware had developed significantly, further displacing daily-use bronze vessels from daily life. In terms of weapons and tools, iron had already taken a dominant position by this time. During the Sui and Tang dynasties, bronze ware primarily consisted of various exquisite bronze mirrors, usually with various inscriptions. Since then, with the exception of bronze mirrors, bronze ware has seen little development.

Manufacturing Techniques

Mold Casting Method (Fanzhu Method)

The mold casting method, also called model casting, was the earlier and most widely used technique. It first involved creating a model from clay, sculpting various patterns and inscriptions, which was then dried and fired to become a母模 (mother mold). The mother mold was then used to create clay molds, which were also dried and fired into陶范 (ceramic molds). Alloy was melted and poured into the cavity of the ceramic molds to form the vessel. After removal from the molds, the piece was cleaned, polished, and processed to become a finished bronze product.

Based on excavated artifacts from ancient bronze workshops combined with analysis of bronze ware shapes, experts believe that the vast majority of ancient Chinese bronze ware was made using the mold casting method.

The mold casting process involves five steps:
1. Modeling: Create the basic shape of the bronze vessel using clay. Draw the outlines of decorations on the prepared clay model, carving out recessed parts directly and attaching raised parts separately.
2. Mold Making: Apply evenly mixed fine clay tightly to the clay model surface, pressing to transfer the model's shape and decorations onto the clay piece.
3. Mold Assembly: Divide the molded clay pieces into sections, fire them to create ceramic molds that are hard and not easily deformed. Assemble these to form the outer mold of the vessel. After making the outer mold, shave off a thin layer from the original clay model to create the inner surface of the vessel, with inscriptions carved on it. Combine the inner and outer molds, with the space between them determining the thickness of the bronze vessel.
4. Pouring: Pour molten bronze into the ceramic molds. After the bronze solidifies, break open the inner and outer molds to extract the cast bronze vessel. A set of ceramic molds could only cast one bronze vessel, so no two identical bronze vessels could be produced this way.
5. Polishing and Finishing: As-cast bronze vessels have rough surfaces with unclear decorations, requiring polishing and finishing to become refined pieces.

Lost-Wax Method (Shila Method)

The lost-wax method is a precision casting technique for metal objects including bronze. It involves creating a model of the casting from beeswax, then filling with refractory material to form the core and outer mold. After heating and baking, the wax model completely melts and flows out, leaving a hollow shell of the casting shape. Molten metal is then poured into this hollow shell to form the object. This method allows for intricate, delicate pieces with openwork effects.

The bronze zun and pan unearthed from the tomb of Marquis Yi of Zeng in Suixian, Hubei, are the earliest known lost-wax castings in China. By the late Spring and Autumn period, the Chinese had likely invented the lost-wax casting technique. The process involves three steps: first, create a wax model from easily fusible materials and coat it multiple times with fine clay slurry to harden it into a casting form. Then, fire the casting form to vitrify it, during which the wax melts and flows out, creating a cavity in the casting form. Finally, pour molten copper into the cavity to create the object.

The lost-wax method was typically used to cast bronze vessels with very complex shapes, such as the Chu bronze table (jin) from Xichuan, Henan, and the Zeng zun and pan from Suizhou, Hubei, believed to be cast using this method.

Whole Casting Method

The whole casting method involves casting an object in a single pour. For oversized or overly complex shapes, the entire object might be divided into multiple parts, each cast separately, then assembled into a whole, a technique called separate casting. When casting multiple small objects, multiple casting molds could be stacked together and cast from a single pour, a technique called stack casting, which appeared in the Spring and Autumn period and became popular during the Han Dynasty, often used for casting coins and other small objects.

Classification of Bronze Ware

Food Vessels

• Ding (鼎): Equivalent to modern pots, used for boiling or storing fish and meat. Most are round-bodied with two handles and three feet, though some have four feet in square forms.
• Li (鬲): Used for cooking rice, generally with flared mouths and three hollow legs.
• Yan (甗): Equivalent to modern steamers, consisting of upper and lower parts. The upper part is the zeng (steamer basket) for food, the lower part is the li for water, with a bamboo separator called a bi between them with holes for steam.
• Gui (簋): Called "hui" in bronze inscriptions, equivalent to modern large bowls for holding rice. Generally round-bodied, flared-mouthed, with ring feet and two handles.
• Fu (簠): Rectangular with outward-flared mouths and four short feet. Has a lid of the same size as the vessel; when closed, it forms one vessel, when opened, it becomes two identical vessels, also called "que li" or "que zhi" in ancient archaeology.
• Xu (盨): Used for holding millet, rice, or other grains. Oval-shaped with contracted mouths, two handles, ring feet, and a lid.
• Dun (敦): Used for holding millet, rice, or other grains. With three short feet, round body, two ring handles, and a lid. Some are spherical.
• Dou (豆): Used for holding meat sauces and similar foods. Has a shallow bowl on top, a long handle, and ring feet, often with a lid.

Wine Vessels

• Jue (爵): Wine warming vessel, equivalent to later wine cups. Round-bodied with a spout for pouring wine at the front, a tail at the back, a handle (pan) on the side, two posts on the rim, and three high pointed feet.
• Jiao (角): Drinking vessel. Similar to jue but with tails at both front and back, no two posts. Some have lids. According to the "Record of Rites" and "Zhou Li", "In ancestral temple sacrifices, the noble raises a zhi, the inferior raises a jiao."
• Jia (斝): Wine warming vessel. Resembles jue with three feet, two posts, and one handle.
• Gu (觚): Drinking vessel. Tall-bodied with flared mouths, both mouth and base in trumpet shape. Gu bodies often have a protrusion in the lower abdomen, with two扉棱 (flanged ridges) as decoration near the ring foot. Early to mid-Shang examples are shorter with "cross-shaped holes" on ring feet; late Shang to early Western Zhou examples are slender with elegant flared mouth and foot lines, and ornate decorations.
• Zhi (觯): Drinking vessel. Round-bodied, flared-mouthed, with ring feet, resembling a small bottle. Most have lids.
• Sigong (兕觥): Wine holding or drinking vessel. Oval or square-shaped body with ring or four feet, has spout and handle, with lid shaped like animal or elephant head.
• Zun (尊): Wine holding vessel. Resembles gu but with a thicker middle section and smaller mouth, some are square.
• You (卣): Main type of wine holding vessel. Generally oval-mouthed, deep-bodied, with ring feet, lid, and handle. The body may be round, oval, or square, some in cylindrical, owl-shaped, or "tiger eating human" forms.
• He (盉): Wine holding vessel, or ancient vessel for mixing wine. Generally deep round mouth with lid, spout in front, handle at back, three or four feet, with a chain connecting lid and handle.
• Fangyi (方彝): Wine holding vessel. Tall square body with lid resembling a roof and knob. Some have flanged ridges; the body may be curved or straight, some with two handles on the sides.
• Shao (勺): Wine ladle. Generally short cylindrical with a handle.

Water Vessels

• Lei (罍): Wine or water holding vessel. Comes in square and round forms. Square lei have wide shoulders, two handles, and lids; round lei have large bodies, ring feet, and two handles. Both forms typically have a ring on one side for suspension.
• Hu (壶): Wine or water holding vessel. As mentioned in the "Book of Odes": "Clear wine in a hundred hu," and in "Mencius": "Bamboo mats and pot-holders of grass." Hu comes in round, square, flat, and gourd-shaped varieties.
• Pan (盘): Water holding or receiving vessel. Mostly round with shallow bodies, ring feet or three feet, some with spouts.
• Yi (匜): Used for pouring water during hand-washing, as mentioned in the "Zuo Zhuan": "holding yi to pour water for washing."

References

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