Kite

Overview

Kites, known in Chinese as "fengzheng" (风筝), also called "zhiyuan" (纸鸢) or "yaozi" (鹞子), are flying objects that have been part of human culture for thousands of years. In ancient China, the southern regions referred to them as "yao" while the northern regions called them "yuan," both names referring to the same bird of prey - the goshawk. The development of kites in China reflects the technological and cultural evolution of Chinese society, from practical military applications to recreational art forms. Today, kites represent both traditional craftsmanship and modern innovation, with festivals and competitions held worldwide to celebrate this ancient art.

History

Naming

The term "fengzheng" for kite originated during the Five Dynasties period (907-960 CE). According to the "Qing Leichao" by Xu Ke from the late Qing and early Republican periods: "During the Five Dynasties, Li Ye made paper kites in the palace, flying them with strings to play. Later, bamboo flutes were attached to the heads of the kites, making sounds like the zheng instrument when the wind blew through them, hence the name 'fengzheng'." Despite this, the term "zhiyuan" continued to be used throughout the Republican era [16].

Origins

Several theories exist regarding the invention of kites in China:

Primitive Worship Theory

Weifang City in Shandong Province is considered the birthplace of kites, with origins dating back to primitive religious worship of birds by the ancient Dongyi people [17].

Wooden Kite Theory

The earliest recorded kite-like devices appear in the texts "Mozi" and "Han Feizi," describing "mu yuan" (wooden kites). The "Mozi" states: "Gongshu Ban carved bamboo and wood to make a magpie, which flew when completed and stayed in the air for three days." The "Han Feizi" records: "Mozi made a wooden kite that took three years to complete but fell apart after one day of flight" [18].

Han Xin Invention Theory

During the Chu-Han Contention, General Han Han used kites to measure the distance to underground tunnels while attacking Weiyang Palace. During the Battle of Gaixia, Han Xin's forces used牛皮 (cowhide) kites with bamboo flutes that made sounds when blown by the wind (another account claims Zhang Liang attached a person playing the flute to a kite). The Han army配合笛声 (coordinated with the flute sounds) by singing songs of Chu, which demoralized Chu's forces, leading to the idiom "surrounded by songs of Chu on all sides" (四面楚歌) [18].

Southern and Northern Dynasties Theory

Records of kites appear in the "Book of Southern History - Biography of Hou Jing" from the Southern and Northern Dynasties period. In 549 CE, during the rebellion of Hou Jing, Emperor Jianwen of Liang and his officials were besieged within the inner city of Taicheng. The text states: "When the rebels first arrived, the city could barely hold them. Everyone expected reinforcements. Then communication was cut off. A man named Yang Che'er suggested making a paper crow attached to a long rope, hiding an imperial edict inside. Emperor Jianwen came out to the front of the Taiji Palace and released it northwestward, hoping the message would reach its destination. The rebels were astonished, thinking it was some magical art, and shot it down." This represents the first documented practical use of kites in military and political contexts, showing that kites were widely used in southern China by this period [18].

Historical Development

Spring and Autumn Period

Mozi (Mo Di) passed on the craft of making kites to his student Luban (also known as Gongshu Ban). According to the "Mozi - Lu Wen Chapter," Luban made kites from bamboo based on Mo Di's designs. Luban split and smoothed bamboo, heated and bent it to form the shape of a magpie, called "mu que" (wooden magpie), which could fly for three days. The "Book of Documents" states: "Gongshu Ban made a wooden kite to spy on the city of Song." "The Old Matters of Zhu Palace" records that Luban "once made a wooden kite and rode it to spy on the city of Song" [18].

Han Dynasty Development

The "Book of Han - Biography of Wang Mang" records: "Some claimed they could cross water without boats, connecting horses to transport a million troops; others claimed they could feed an army without carrying grain, just by taking medicines; others claimed they could fly a thousand miles a day to spy on the Xiongnu. Wang Mang tested these claims, taking large bird feathers to make wings, covering the head and body with feathers, and connecting them with rings and fastenings. It flew several hundred steps before falling." Wang Mang's experiments with flying birds represented another imitation of avian flight following the wooden kites [18].

During the Eastern Han Dynasty, Cai Lun improved traditional papermaking techniques, reducing costs and making the process more accessible. As an essential material for kites, the普及 (popularization) of paper made kites lighter and more accessible to ordinary people [18].

Tang Dynasty Development

Starting from the Sui and Tang dynasties, due to the发达 (developed) paper industry, people used paper to cover kites. The Tang Dynasty was politically stable and economically prosperous, with the government重视 (emphasizing) cultural development and foreign exchange. People's cultural lives became more丰富多彩 (colorful and rich), with new forms of entertainment emerging. The term "fengzheng" began appearing in Tang poetry, such as: "In the two corridors, the Dharma drums beat; at the four corners, kites sing" (Li Bai, "Climbing Waguan Pavilion"). "Dust buries the old flower ornaments on the painted wall; crows peck at the kites, scattering pearls and jade" (Yuan Zhen, "Lianchang Palace Poem"). Yuan Zhen's "Twenty Poems About Birds - Paper Kite" describes the entire process of flying a kite. Yang Yu's "Ode to Paper Kite" provides a detailed description of the kite-making process, while Tang Rong's "Ode to Paper Kite" describes the movements of kites in the air: rising, turning, flying far, and pulling close. This shows that by the Tang Dynasty, kites had普及 (become popular) in northern China, with their function shifting from practical to recreational [18].

Song and Jin Periods

During the Song Dynasty, foreign trade flourished, and the social economy developed, enriching people's social lives and recreational activities. Flying kites became a popular outdoor activity. "Old Matters of Wulin" details the urban landscape of the Southern Song capital, describing customs of flying kites, such as people going to the outskirts to fly kites during the Qingming Festival and returning only at dusk. For the first time, kite images appeared in Song paintings, such as in "Hundred Children Playing in Spring," where the kite's shape resembled today's simple kites [18].

In the Jin Dynasty, the craft of bronze mirrors flourished in northern China. One bronze mirror featured kite flying as its theme, with the back divided into four decorative groups, each showing two people flying a kite. The kites were shaped like birds, sparrows, phoenixes, or butterflies, with vivid and elegant designs, reflecting the advanced kite-making and flying techniques of northern China at the time. The rich variety of kite shapes in Jin Dynasty mirror designs demonstrates the sophisticated craftsmanship of the era [18].

In the 13th century, after Italian Marco Polo returned to Europe from China, kites began to spread in the West. Some theories suggest kites were transmitted to Korea around the 10th century, then to Japan, and finally to Europe in the 13th and 14th centuries. These kites carried strong Chinese cultural characteristics [18].

Ming and Qing Periods

The Ming and Qing dynasties (1368-1911) marked the golden age of kite development in China. During the Ming Dynasty, kites were used for military purposes, with the invention of "divine fire flying crows" (神火飞鸦) - kites carrying explosives to kill enemies. In the Qing Dynasty, kite craftsmanship became increasingly sophisticated, with kites widely used for entertainment and seasonal folk activities [12]. Ming and Qing kites saw tremendous advancements in size, style, binding techniques, decoration, and flying skills compared to previous dynasties. At that time, scholars personally made and painted kites, not only for their own enjoyment but also as gifts to friends and relatives, considering this a highly elegant activity [1].

Republican Period

During the Republican period, kite production became increasingly commercialized, with Weifang in Shandong and Tianjin being the most famous kite-making centers. Four major kite production areas emerged: Weifang, Beijing, Tianjin, and Nantong. During this time, kite artists collaborated with painters to create high-end kites that could be displayed as artworks on walls. In Weifang, some folk painters and specialized craftsmen combined exquisite skills like painting and silver inlay with kite making, establishing characteristic kite shops. The most famous was the Wang Family Kite Shop established by painter Wang Fuzhai, which produced exquisite works like "Immortal Crane and Boy" and "Lei Zhenzi." Carver Chen Hezi became known for high-end kite joints made with silver inlay techniques, with his ivory-inlaid kite joints considered artistic treasures. People in northern mountainous regions often used local materials like reeds to make distinctive mountain kites [27].

In 1915, Chinese kites won gold and silver medals at the Panama-Pacific International Exposition. In the 1920s, kite competitions were held in Weifang, Qingdao, and Anqing. The 1930s was a prosperous period for kite development in China, with the preliminary formation of a kite system dominated by plate, hard-wing, soft-wing, cylindrical, and string kites. On April 5, 1933, kite artists in old Weifang County spontaneously held the first kite competition in the county government hall [26].

After the Founding of the People's Republic of China

Starting from the 1950s, kites went through several decades of recovery and began to develop positively. In the 1980s and 1990s, the China Kite Association and the International Kite Federation were established, and the State Physical Culture Commission listed kite flying as an official sports competition. Various regions began hosting kite competitions. In 2004, the Weifang International Kite Festival was listed by UNESCO as part of the cultural heritage and folk protection project [27].

Construction

Skeleton

The skeleton is generally made of bamboo strips, wood, and plastic rods. Some designers have created boneless kites whose structure involves introducing air into air pockets made of silk, causing the kite to form a lightly floating air pillow that rises with the wind. The skeleton is the collection of the kite's rigid parts [28].

Covering

The covering is the paper or cloth surface that serves as the kite's supporting surface. Materials for covering include silk, paper, and plastic materials. The skeleton and covering together form the kite's surface, which can be divided into the back where the skeleton is located and the belly facing the ground [28].

Kite Line

The kite line connects the kite to the ground and can be made of silk, thick rope, thin rope, or metal wire [28].

Bridle

The bridle is the elastic part that connects the kite body to the kite line. The bridle consists of several separate ropes called reins [28].

Stabilizing Structure

The kite's stabilizing mechanism is specifically designed to ensure stability, such as the kite's tail and wings [28].

Making Craftsmanship

Overview

Traditional Chinese kite craftsmanship can be summarized in four characters: "zha" (to tie), "hu" (to paste), "hui" (to paint), and "fang" (to fly), collectively known as the "Four Arts." Simply understood, these refer to tying the frame, pasting the paper surface, painting the designs, and flying the kite. However, the connotations of these four characters are much broader, encompassing almost all aspects of traditional Chinese kite craftsmanship. "Zha" includes: selecting, splitting, bending, trimming, and joining. "Hu" includes: selecting, cutting, pasting, edging, and adjusting. "Hui" includes: coloring, base coating, outlining, dyeing, and finishing. "Fang" includes: wind assessment, line handling, launching, adjusting, and retrieving. The comprehensive application of these "Four Arts" reaches the level of kite design and innovation [24].

Paper and silk are common materials for traditional kites, with bright colors that highlight the charm of Chinese kites. However, paper is easily damaged, and silk is expensive. Modern scientific products like nylon cloth and plastic film have become new materials for making kites. Bamboo is the primary material for kite frames. Bamboo with a wall thickness of 3-5 cm can be split into strips, utilizing the flexibility of bamboo to make kite frames. The kite frame can be designed according to personal preferences, such as dragonfly-shaped or butterfly-shaped [24].

Paper is the main material for covering kites. The best paper is thin, with long and uniform fibers, toughness, moisture resistance, impact resistance, and white color. After pasting the paper onto the frame and attaching a line, the kite is complete. At this point, colors can be applied to the finished kite, decorative borders added, or silk ribbons and paper rings attached. While appropriate accessories won't affect the kite's flight, too many will cause imbalance. Most modern kites use advertising cloth as the surface material, and frames have changed from bamboo to carbon rods, significantly improving flight performance [24].

Kite Frame Making

Chinese kite frames are mainly made from various types of bamboo, supplemented by reeds, sorghum stalks, etc. Modern materials include wood, glass fiber, carbon fiber composites, or light metals. Bamboo's characteristics are: light weight, straight and dense fibers (in the outer part), giving it certain strength, toughness, and flexibility. It can be split into strips of various specifications and is easy to process. It can be heat-bent and maintains its shape after cooling. The disadvantage is that it is not as rigid as wood [24].

When selecting materials, besides the variety, one must consider how to choose the timing and part of use. Looking longitudinally at a mature bamboo pole, it can be roughly divided into the root, middle, and tip sections. The root section has dense nodes, many roots, and an irregular shape, making it unsuitable. The tip section is明显 (obviously) thinner with many branches, also unsuitable. Only the middle section with long nodes and minimal change in thickness should be used [24].

Cross-sectionally, a bamboo can be observed. The outermost part is the bamboo skin, the part with dense fiber tissue inside the skin is bamboo green (qing), and the part with loose tissue inside bamboo green is bamboo yellow (huang). Generally, only bamboo green and skin are used for kite making, while bamboo yellow must be scraped off. However, how much to scrape depends on the specific situation [24].

Freshly cut bamboo contains much moisture and is easily bent and deformed. It must be placed in a cool, shaded place to dry naturally before use. Bamboo that has been stored for several years has little moisture but is brittle and hard, making it difficult to bend, and is rarely used. Of course, immature bamboo and naturally cracked old bamboo are also unusable [24].

Due to bamboo's straight grain, it can be processed by "splitting" along its natural grain rather than cutting with a blade. Splitting bamboo involves three steps: making an initial cut, splitting in, and prying apart. While a regular knife can split small bamboo, special tools are needed for larger bamboo. Generally, the harvested round bamboo undergoes preliminary processing to make bamboo boards for later use. The steps are as follows: 1. Remove the root and tip. 2. Cut into sections about 1-1.5 meters long. 3. Split each round section into 8 strips of approximately equal width. 4. Bundle the bamboo strips neatly in groups of 10 and air-dry them [24].

Trimming is the fine processing after splitting, using a blade to scrape the bamboo into strips of various widths, thicknesses, and slopes needed for different kite parts. Using a woodworking plane to scrape bamboo boards is a common method [24].

An important characteristic of bamboo is that at certain temperatures, its structure softens, making it easy to bend, and it retains its shape when cooled in the bent position. Using this characteristic, various complex curved parts can be made. The exquisite and delicate nature of Chinese kites is related to the use of this bendable bamboo. Various heat sources can be used to process bamboo. Traditional Chinese kite making used candles and kerosene lamps. The bamboo strip is evenly heated to a certain temperature on the heat source, constantly rotating and moving to gradually heat all parts. When preheated to the right temperature, the bamboo softens and can be bent. However, bending should be moderate, steady, and accurate, preferably succeeding in one attempt. When bending on an electric soldering iron, it can be done in sections, finally forming a larger arc, while small arcs can be bent in one go. It's easier to bend with the bamboo skin outward than inward. After bending, the bamboo strip can be placed in cold water to set its shape [24].

The individual bamboo strip parts are then connected to form the complete kite frame. Many connection methods exist, with binding being the most commonly used in traditional Chinese kite making, which is why "zha" (binding) is placed first in the "Four Arts." Besides "zha," other methods include wedge fastening, detachable joints, and plug-in connections [24].

Kite Covering

Covering kites involves using paper, alum-treated silk, or thin silk, chosen according to the kite type. For example, when covering a dragonfly kite, silk is used because its transparency makes it resemble a living dragonfly's wings. For the tail of a green dragon kite, silk is used so it flutters in the wind like a fish tail. For an eagle kite, silk cannot be used because its movement in the wind doesn't resemble a soaring eagle, so leather paper or wind-resistant treated paper must be used instead [24].

When covering a kite, paper is cut larger than the frame, with small cuts made at the edges. Paste is applied to the edges, and the cut edges are successively pasted onto paper strips. There are two main covering methods: the first, called "bao bian'er," wraps the paper around all four sides of the bamboo strips. The second, called "cai bian'er," wraps the paper around only two sides of the bamboo strips; after the paste dries, excess paper is trimmed away with a knife, revealing some of the processed bamboo strips to display the artisan's skill [24].

Kites can be covered before or after painting. For covering after painting, each part's paper is cut first, painted, air-dried, ironed flat, and then pasted onto the frame. When painting, patterns are not drawn completely at the joints, leaving some blank space that is filled in after covering. Specific kites have different covering methods; for example, sand swallow kites are covered first on the two wings, then the two legs, and finally the head and belly. Mi character kites are also covered on the two wings first, while flat kites use a flat pasting method [24].

Kite Painting

The paintings, compositions, and colors on kites best reflect local characteristics. For example, Weifang kites in Shandong incorporate techniques from Weixian woodblock New Year pictures while absorbing strengths from Beijing and Tianjin kite painting. Their lines are relatively bold, with colors mainly based on red, yellow, and blue, using heavy brushstrokes and bright, simple tones to create strong visual effects in symmetrical designs. Weifang's dragon centipede kites, represented by the Hu Jingzhu school, use group blue as the main color, creating intense visual contrast. The Kang Wanxiang school uses Prussian blue to represent the sea, supplemented by warm colors like red and orange, creating vivid images that harmonize yet stand out against the blue sky when the kite flies [24].

Kite colors vary greatly. Today's kites are generally bright and colorful. In the past, without chemical dyes and pigments, kite workshops typically made their own colors, which were both inexpensive and beautiful. Understanding how earlier artisans created colors and mixed paints provides insight into the historical context of kite making and can be applied in specific situations [24].

Kite Flying

Many tools are used for flying kites, such as lines, winding reels, and various accessories. Different types of lines are used: thread for small kites, the most common folk line being "small line" (three-ply cotton thread), silk thread (fine called "si xian," coarse called "si sheng"), and finally hemp thread (historically used by common people for large kites) [25].

The most common winding reel is the "xian guang zi," a hexagonal line reel that spins freely on an axis. When winding in, one hand pulls the line while the other turns the reel, which is very convenient and itself a delightful toy. Another type is the simple reel, which has a flat frame on an axis. For larger kites, a "line拐子" (line crank) is used, and for even larger ones, a winch. Finally, kite accessories are items used for games while flying kites, including various types like "wind instruments," "gongs and drums," and "food deliverers" [25].

Cultural Significance

Historically, kites had different names in southern and northern China, with southern regions calling them "yao" and northern regions "yuan," leading to the saying "nan yao yuan yuan" (southern yao, northern yuan). Due to regional cultural differences, Chinese kites developed into various styles [8].

Traditional Folk School

Weifang folk kites, historically speaking, are distinguished from court kites and artisan kites; in modern times, they are distinguished from modern new-style kites. (1) The makers of folk kites were mostly farmers and artisans, generally without specialized artistic training. They expressed their ideals and desires freely according to their intuitive feelings about life and aesthetic habits. Their kites, whether in shape, materials, color arrangement, or style, carry a strong local flavor. (2) Folk kites are generally made for traditional festivals like Qingming and Double Ninth, so their themes are selectively chosen and their forms emphasize decoration. (3) Folk kites use local materials, bamboo strips and paper paste, without great elaboration, but their style is bold and unaffected. (4) Folk kites are influenced by regional culture, economy, and customs. In their making, artisans often observe and consult with each other,加之 (plus) factors of hereditary transmission, so folk kites carry ancient traditional colors and are essentially collective creations [8].

Traditional Artisan School

With the emergence of kite businesses, professional kite artisans emerged. In Weifang's history, many famous painters also participated in kite painting and even design, creating exquisite kites. Of course, these fine works were unaffordable for most people, and wealthy buyers often commissioned custom pieces from artisans, reflecting the saying "seven parts master, three parts artisan." Additionally, during dynastic transitions, some court kite artisans settled among the common people, promoting the development and improvement of artisan-style kites, giving them the solemn and magnificent characteristics of court kites. The traditional artisan school played a positive role in promoting Weifang kite development, elevating kites from simple toys to valuable artworks and an important part of Weifang's local culture [8].

Modern Innovative School

In modern times, as professional artists, technicians, workers, and urban residents enthusiastically participate in kite activities, fully utilizing the advantages of modern craftsmanship and science and technology, they have created brand-new modern kites based on traditional ones. Modern kites primarily [8].

Modern Status

Today, kites have evolved from simple toys to sophisticated flying devices and works of art. International kite festivals attract participants and spectators from around the world, with Weifang, China, widely recognized as the "World Capital of Kites." Modern kite making incorporates traditional techniques with new materials like carbon fiber frames and synthetic fabrics. Competitive kite flying has become a recognized sport with categories for precision, ballet, and artistic expression. Technological innovations have led to developments in kite surfing, kite buggying, and other extreme sports that utilize kite power. Despite these modern developments, traditional kite making techniques and cultural significance continue to be preserved and celebrated through museums, cultural heritage programs, and dedicated artisans who pass down their skills to new generations.

Key Information

References

[1] Chen, X. (2010). The Art of Chinese Kite Making. Beijing: China National Publishing Group.

[16] Xu, K. (1928). Qing Leichao (Miscellaneous Notes of the Qing Dynasty). Shanghai: Commercial Press.

[18] Wang, L. (2005). History of Chinese Kites. Jinan: Shandong Friendship Publishing House.

[24] Zhang, Y. (2012). Traditional Chinese Kite Craftsmanship. Beijing: Cultural Relics Publishing House.

[27] Li, H. (2018). Chinese Folk Arts and Crafts: Kites. Beijing: China Light Industry Press.

[29] Zhao, R. (2015). Masters of Chinese Kite Art. Weifang: Weifang Publishing House.