Zheng He

Overview

Zheng He (1371-1433), originally named Ma He and also known as Sanbao, was a Chinese admiral, explorer, and diplomat who commanded the Ming Dynasty's treasure voyages. Born into a Muslim family in Yunnan province, he was captured by Ming forces during the conquest of Yunnan and castrated to become a eunuch. Rising through the ranks of the imperial court, Zheng He became one of the most influential figures in Chinese maritime history, leading seven expeditions collectively known as the "Treasure Voyages" between 1405 and 1433. These voyages demonstrated China's naval prowess and established diplomatic and trade relations across the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as the Arabian Peninsula and the east coast of Africa.

History

Early Life and Rise to Prominence

Zheng He's early life remains somewhat obscure. Historical records indicate that he was captured by Ming troops during the conquest of Yunnan in 1381. By 1384, he had entered the imperial service in Nanjing, and later served in the household of Zhu Di, the Prince of Yan (later the Yongle Emperor). During the Jingnan Campaign (1399-1402), when Zhu Di usurped the throne from his nephew, the Jianwen Emperor, Zheng He reportedly distinguished himself in battle, though specific details are unclear. Following Zhu Di's victory, Zheng He was entrusted with important ceremonial duties, including presiding over sacrifices to Zhu Di's wet nurse in 1402.

In 1403, Zheng He commissioned the printing of the Buddhist text "Sutra of the Mo Li Zhi Tian" and invited the monk Yao Guangxiao to write a preface. This preface reveals that Zheng had already taken Buddhist vows under the Dharma name "Fujixiang" and had been granted the surname "Zheng" by the emperor.

The Seven Voyages to the "Western Oceans"

Zheng He's appointment as the commander of the treasure voyages was based on several factors. He possessed military talent, enjoyed the Yongle Emperor's complete trust, and had a commanding physical presence. Additionally, his dual background in Buddhism and Islam made him particularly suited for diplomatic missions to diverse regions.

First Voyage (1405-1407)

On July 11, 1405, Zheng He set sail from Liujiagang (near Suzhou) with a fleet of approximately 317 ships and 27,800 men. The journey took them to Champa (central Vietnam), Java, Sumatra, the Malacca Sultanate, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), and Calicut (India). During this voyage, Zheng He successfully suppressed the pirate leader Chen Zuyi at Old Port, capturing him and executing him upon returning to China. The voyage established diplomatic relations and conducted trade with numerous states.

Second Voyage (1407-1409)

Returning to sea in late 1407, Zheng He's second voyage visited many of the same ports as the first, with an emphasis on Ceylon. Here, he made offerings to Buddhist temples and erected a trilingual inscription in Chinese, Tamil, and Persian, showing respect to Buddha, Vishnu, and Allah respectively. This stone inscription was discovered in 1911 and is now preserved in the National Museum of Sri Lanka.

Third Voyage (1409-1411)

Departing in late 1409, Zheng He's third voyage faced significant challenges in Ceylon. King Alagakkonara of Ceylon attempted to trap and attack the Chinese fleet. Recognizing the threat, Zheng He devised a counterstrategy, leaving most of his fleet while leading a force of 2,000 men to launch a surprise attack on the capital, capturing the king and his family. This demonstrated both Zheng's diplomatic skill and military prowess.

Fourth Voyage (1412-1415)

Beginning in December 1412, this voyage marked a significant expansion of Chinese maritime reach, with Zheng He's fleet sailing around the Arabian Peninsula to reach Malindi in East Africa for the first time. The journey also involved military action in Sumatra, where Zheng He captured and executed a local prince named Sekander who had attempted to usurp the throne and attack the Chinese fleet. The return journey brought with it a giraffe (described as a "qilin" or mythical creature) from Malindi, creating considerable excitement at the Chinese court.

Fifth Voyage (1416-1419)

Setting out in late 1416, this voyage focused on returning ambassadors from previous voyages and extending Chinese influence to even more distant African ports including Mogadishu, Brava, and Malindi. Historical records indicate Zheng He visited the Ling Shan Saint Tomb in Quanzhou during this journey, demonstrating his respect for diverse religious traditions.

Sixth Voyage (1421-1422)

This voyage, which began in early 1421, marked the first official Chinese contact with the Arabian state of Dhofar. The fleet returned to China in 1422, bringing ambassadors from several states including Siam, Sumatra, and Aden.

Seventh Voyage (1430-1433)

Zheng He's final voyage began in June 1430. During this journey, he erected the "Tian Fei Ling Ying Zhi Ji Bei" (Stele of the Heavenly Concubine's Responsive Grace) in Changle, Fujian, which provides invaluable historical information about the expeditions. The fleet reached as far as Mecca and Hormuz. Zheng He himself died during the return journey in Calicut in 1433. The fleet, now under the command of fellow eunuch Wang Jinghong, returned to Nanjing in July 1433.

Key Information

Cultural Significance

Zheng He's voyages had profound cultural significance, representing the zenith of Chinese maritime exploration and power. The expeditions facilitated extensive cultural exchange between China and numerous foreign civilizations. Zheng He's dual religious background allowed him to bridge cultural divides, as evidenced by his trilingual inscription in Ceylon showing respect to Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam.

The voyages also led to the spread of Chinese cultural and technological influences abroad, including porcelain, silk, and advanced navigational techniques. Conversely, foreign goods such as spices, gems, exotic animals (including giraffes described as "qilin"), and plants were introduced to China, enriching Chinese material culture.

In the regions visited, Zheng He became a legendary figure. In parts of Southeast Asia, particularly Java and Malacca, he was revered as a cultural hero. Local traditions and folklore in these regions often depict Zheng He as a bringer of peace, prosperity, and Islamic teachings, despite his official role as a Buddhist eunuch in the Chinese court.

Modern Status

In modern times, Zheng He has been reevaluated as a symbol of Chinese maritime heritage and peaceful diplomacy. The Chinese government has emphasized his voyages as evidence of China's historical commitment to peaceful international relations and cultural exchange.

Academic interest in Zheng He has grown significantly, particularly since the late 20th century. Historians have studied his voyages in the context of global maritime history, examining how they compare to European voyages of exploration that followed. The discovery of new archaeological evidence, including shipwrecks and inscriptions, has continued to expand our understanding of these expeditions.

Zheng He's legacy is commemorated in numerous ways across China and the world. Museums dedicated to his voyages have been established in places like Nanjing and Kunming. In 2005, the Chinese government sponsored large-scale celebrations commemorating the 600th anniversary of Zheng He's first voyage, highlighting his significance in national narratives of Chinese history and identity.

References

1. Levathes, Louise. When China Ruled the Seas: The Treasure Fleet of the Dragon Throne, 1405-1433. Oxford University Press, 1994.

2. Dreyer, Edward L. Zheng He: China and the Oceans in the Early Ming Dynasty, 1405-1433. Pearson Longman, 2006.

3. Mills, J.V.G. The Ying-yai Sheng-lan: The Overall Survey of the Ocean's Shores (1433). Translated with notes, Hakluyt Society, 1970.

4. Sen, Tansen. China and India: A Thousand Years of Cultural Exchange. Oxford University Press, 2017.

5. Needham, Joseph. Science and Civilisation in China, Volume 4: Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3: Civil Engineering and Nautics. Cambridge University Press, 1971.