The Scholars

Overview

The Scholars (儒林外史, Rulin Waishi), also translated as The Scholars or The Unofficial History of the Literati, is a Chinese satirical novel written by Wu Jingzi (1701-1754) during the Qing Dynasty. First published in 1750, it is widely regarded as one of the masterpieces of Chinese vernacular literature and a pioneering work in the development of the Chinese novel. The novel consists of 56 chapters and spans a period from the late Yuan Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty, though it actually reflects the social conditions and scholar culture of Qing China. Through a series of interconnected stories, the novel offers a comprehensive critique of the imperial examination system (科举制度, keju zhidu) and the moral corruption of scholar-officials who pursued fame and fortune at the expense of true learning and integrity.

History

Creation Background

The novel emerged during the reigns of the Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong emperors, a period when China was experiencing the initial emergence of capitalist production relations beneath the surface of societal prosperity. Despite this apparent flourishing, the feudal system was becoming increasingly decadent. The ruling class suppressed armed uprisings while employing various methods to control intellectuals, including: initiating literary inquisitions (文字狱, wenziyu), promoting the eight-legged essay format (八股文, bagu wen) for examinations, expanding the imperial examination system, and advocating Neo-Confucianism (理学, lixue) to dominate intellectual thought.

Wu Jingzi himself was deeply critical of the eight-legged essay format and the examination system, which he believed encouraged scholars to obsess over examination techniques while pursuing fame and fortune. He expressed these views through The Scholars, using satire to expose the ugliness and corruption of contemporary society.

Personal Experiences of Wu Jingzi

Wu Jingzi's personal experiences significantly influenced his writing. In 1722, he passed the county-level examination to become a Xiucai (秀才), but his father died the same year. Due to poor financial management, Wu lived a prodigal lifestyle. In 1729, when attempting the imperial examination, he was criticized as having "excellent articles but an eccentric personality" and suffered humiliation. He then left his hometown in frustration, relying on selling his writings and financial support from friends.

In 1736, Wu participated in the preliminary examination for the prestigious博学鸿词科 (Boxue Hongci Ke), a special examination for talented scholars. The governor of Anhui formally recommended him for the capital examination, but Wu "firmly declined due to severe illness" (as recorded in Gu Yun's "Biography of Wu Jingzi") and never participated in examinations again. In his later years, he often faced hunger and cold. These personal experiences gave him profound insight into the advantages and disadvantages of the examination system and its impact on scholars.

Meaning of the Title

The title The Scholars combines "Rulin" (儒林, literally "forest of Confucian scholars") and "Waishi" (外史, "unofficial history"). The term "Rulin" originates from the "Biographies of Confucian Scholars" (儒林列传) in the Records of the Grand Historian (史记), referring to the community of scholars and intellectuals. By designating his work as "Waishi" (unofficial history) rather than a formal historical account, Wu Jingzi clearly distinguished his work from official histories. As his close friend Cheng Jinfang revealed in his poem "Remembering People": "The unofficial history records the lives of scholars, how ingeniously it portrays them; I lament for these people, who are ultimately transmitted through this unofficial history." This indicates that Wu intended to create a biography of scholars outside official historical records, setting his stories in the Ming Dynasty while actually depicting the widespread social life of the Qing Dynasty and reflecting the fate of intellectuals poisoned by the examination system of his time.

Key Information

Content and Plot

Time Span

The Scholars begins in the late Yuan Dynasty ("Prologue") and continues until the 44th year of the Wanli era in the Ming Dynasty (1616, "The Hidden List"), spanning approximately 248 years. The main narrative starts in the late Chenghua era of the Ming Dynasty (about 120 years after the prologue) and concludes with the "Four Guests" story in the 23rd year of the Wanli era (1595), 21 years before the "Hidden List." Thus, the novel covers the rise and fall of an entire dynasty.

Plot Summary

The novel opens with Wang Mian (王冕), a farmer's son from Zhuji in Zhejiang Province, who becomes self-educated. When he refuses to associate with the county magistrate Shi Ren and the local gentry Wei Su, he leaves for Jinan in Shandong to sell paintings. After half a year, the Yellow River floods, causing people to flee, and Wang Mian returns to his hometown. Soon after, his mother dies. A year later, the realm falls into chaos. The King of Wu (later the founder of the Ming Dynasty) visits Wang Mian to seek advice on pacifying the realm.

Several years later, the King of Wu establishes the Ming Dynasty, and the Ministry of Rites decides to select officials based on the Four Books, Five Classics, and the eight-legged essay format. Wang Mian foresees that "a generation of scholars will face disaster" and retreats to Kuaiji Mountain to live in seclusion.

In the late Chenghua era, at the Guanyin Ancestral Hall in Xuejiji,汶上县 (Wenshang County), Shandong, Xia Zongjia recommends Zhou Jin to be a teacher. Zhou Jin, an old scholar who has never passed even the county-level examination, is ridiculed by the Xiucai Mei Jiu and looked down upon by the Juren Wang Hui. After losing his teaching position, he is filled with resentment. Accompanying his brother-in-law Jin Youyueng to the provincial capital to account for merchants, he visits the examination institute and, upon seeing the examination boards, becomes so distraught that he faints after hitting his head against them. Later, with financial help from merchants, he donates to become a student at the imperial college, eventually passing the provincial and metropolitan examinations, becoming a censor, and being appointed as the educational commissioner for Guangdong. When examining the child students of Nanhai and Panyu counties, he recognizes the 54-year-old old student Fan Jin for admission.

Soon after, Fan Jin passes the provincial examination but becomes ecstatically mad. His father-in-law Hu Tuhu slaps him awake. Fan's mother dies of extreme joy. At the suggestion of the gentry Zhang Jingzhai, Fan Jin goes with him to visit his examination supervisor, Tang Feng, the magistrate of Gaoyao County. While waiting to see Magistrate Tang, another local gentry scholar, Yan Dazhi (Yan Gongsheng), arrives to meet them. Yan Gongsheng, who has been tyrannical in his hometown, is reported to the county. Unexpectedly, Magistrate Tang approves the lawsuit, forcing Yan Gongsheng to flee to the provincial capital. County runners find his younger brother, the Jian Sheng Yan Dayu. Yan Dayu, timid and fearful, asks his two brothers-in-law, the Sheng students Wang De and Wang Ren, to resolve his elder brother's lawsuit. Soon after, Yan Dayu's wife Wang falls seriously ill, and he spends a large sum of silver to persuade his brothers-in-law to allow his concubine Zhao to become the principal wife. Then Wang dies. The marriage and funeral expenses total four to five thousand taels of silver, causing Yan Dayu great pain and distress. His old illness flares up, and he becomes bedridden. Later, Zhao's only son dies, and Gongsheng seizes the opportunity to claim his brother's property, initiating numerous lawsuits.

At this point, Zhou Jin has been promoted to the Director of Studies at the Imperial Academy. His student Fan Jin has also been appointed as the educational commissioner for Shandong. On his way to take office, Zhou Jin entrusts him with his former student Xun Mei, who had passed the examination with Wang Hui. Unexpectedly, Xun Mei's mother dies, and while the court is selecting officials for the Censorate and Surveillance Offices, Wang Hui advises him to seek special permission to remain in office, which is rejected. Xun Mei returns home to observe mourning. Wang Hui goes to Nanchang to assume the post of prefect, handling交接 with the former prefect Qu You's son Qu Jingyu. He is later promoted to the Nan Gan Circuit, where he encounters the rebellion of Prince Ning and surrenders. After Prince Ning is captured, Wang Hui flees to Wuzhen in Zhejiang, where he meets Qu Jingyu's son Qu Gong. Qu Gong gives him 200 taels of silver, and Wang Hui gives him a pillow box. From the pillow box, Qu Gong discovers a collection of poetry criticism by Gao Qingqiu and publishes it under his own name as "supplement and edited," from which point he is regarded as a young celebrity. The brothers Lou Song and Lou Zhan of Huzhou host a banquet for the editor Lu Bianxiu, who, seeing Qu Gong at the banquet, promises his daughter to him in marriage.

Soon after, Lu Bianxiu and Qu You die, and Qu Gong's desire to be a celebrity diminishes. He befriends Ma Shangshang, who selects texts at Wenhai Tower. At this time, Ma Shangshang's servant Chengcheng elopes with the maid Shuanghong. When captured, instigated by runners, he threatens to report Qu Gong for harboring Wang Hui, a "criminal wanted by the imperial court," using the pillow box as leverage. Fortunately, Ma Shangshang uses all his savings to redeem the pillow box, resolving the case. Ma Shangshang then leaves Jiaxing for Wenhan Tower in Hangzhou.

Ma Shangshang tours West Lake and helps the young fortune-teller Kuang Chaoren. After returning home, Kuang is recognized and supported by the magistrate Li Benying, becoming a Xiucai. Unexpectedly, Li Benying is falsely accused, and under the guidance of Pan Baozheng, Kuang goes to Hangzhou to rely on his distant relative Pan San. From then on, Kuang befriends the West Lake celebrities Jing Lanjiang, Zhao Xue, Zhi Jianfeng, and Pu Moqing, accompanying Hu Sanzi's son in touring West Lake and holding poetry gatherings. Pan San persuades him not to associate with these people and incites him to forge documents and take examinations for others. Thus, Kuang accumulates a considerable amount of silver and marries the daughter of runner Zheng Lao.

After Li Benying's case is cleared and he is promoted to Censor, he sends people to find Kuang. At this time, Pan San has been arrested. Receiving a letter from Li Benying, Kuang sends his wife to the countryside in Leqing and goes to the capital alone. After his original wife Zheng dies (which he secretly desires), he continues north by boat, meeting Feng Zu'an and Niu Buyi on the boat. When they reach Yangzhou, Feng and Kuang change boats to continue north, while Niu Buyi takes a river boat to Wuhu, staying at Ganlu Monastery. Unfortunately, he falls ill and dies. The old monk arranges his funeral.

The young man Niu Pulai, living nearby, comes to the monastery one evening to read by the light of the lamp. The old monk prepares to show him Niu Buyi's poetry manuscripts, but Pulai cannot wait and steals them first. Soon after, the old monk goes to the capital, and Pulai brazenly impersonates Niu Buyi to deceive others. The newly appointed magistrate Dong Ying, admiring his reputation, comes to pay respects but leaves after a brief conversation.

From then on, Niu Pulai learns to be snobbish and has conflicts with his wife's family, the Bu brothers. He goes to Andian County to rely on Dong Ying. On the way, he meets Niu Yupu, and they claim to be grandfather and grandson. Niu Yupu takes him to the home of Yangzhou salt merchant Wan Xuezhai. Pulai falls into a pond and is coldly treated by Niu Yupu. When he hears from the Ziwugong Taoist priest about Wan Xuezhai's background, he deliberately induces Niu Yupu to reveal it publicly, causing Wan Xuezhai to dismiss him. Only then does Niu Yupu realize he has been deceived and beats Pulai severely, leaving him by the riverbank. Pulai is rescued by passing guest Huang and goes to Andian with him, where Huang takes him as a son-in-law. Dong Ying is about to be promoted and entrusts his successor Xiang Ding to take care of Pulai. Unexpectedly, the real Niu Buyi's wife comes searching for her husband and reports the case to the county.

County Magistrate Xiang Ding, having handled this baffling lawsuit, is reported to the Provincial Surveillance Office by others but is rescued by the actor Bao Wenliang, who admires his talent. Soon after, Bao Wenliang returns to Nanjing to resume his profession. Xiang Ding is promoted to Anqing Prefect and passes through Nanjing, visiting Bao and inviting him and his son Tingxi to his office, giving them silver and arranging for Tingxi's marriage. Later, Xiang Ding is promoted to Tingzhang Circuit in Fujian, while Bao Wenliang returns to Nanjing and dies of illness. Tingxi, not favored by his stepmother, goes to Suzhou to find his brother, who has died. He then goes to Yangzhou to rely on Ji Weixiao, from where he meets a group of Yangzhou celebrities such as Dong Xin, Jin Yu Liu, and La Xiashi. Returning to Nanjing, he relies on Du Shenqing. Du Shenqing invites over 100 young female opera singers in Nanjing to a grand gathering at Mochou Lake. Afterwards, Bao Tingxi asks Du Shenqing for help, but Du introduces him to his cousin Shaolinger in Tianchang.

Du Shaolinger is generous and filial but poor at managing household affairs. His servant Wang Huzi, along with Zhang Tiebi and others, swindles his property, and Bao Tingxi also takes the opportunity to demand over 100 taels of silver and leaves. Soon, Shaolinger's property is nearly exhausted. Following the advice of his old servant Lou Huanwen, he moves to Nanjing, where he meets various celebrities gathered there. Shaolinger and his wife tour Qingliang Mountain, living freely. Unexpectedly, the governor recommends him for the Boxue Hongci examination. He has to go to Anqing to thank the governor and decline in person, but the governor does not allow his request. After returning, the governor sends someone to urge him again, so Shaolinger pretends to be ill and declines.

At this time, Chi Hengshan is proposing to repair the Tai Bo Ancestral Temple, and Du Shaolinger, Zhu Shaoguang, and others strongly support this undertaking, jointly organizing it and nominating Yu Yude, a博士 (boshi) at the Nanjing Imperial College, to be the main officiant. After much preparation, the grand ceremony is set for the first day of the fourth lunar month, with celebrities and text selectors from all over Nanjing participating, and the local populace also crowding to watch.

After the ceremony, the participants disperse. At this time, Guo Xiaozizi, who has been searching for his father for twenty years, comes to Nanjing. Led by Du Shaolinger, the Nanjing celebrities do not cold-shoulder him because he is Wang Hui's son but praise his filial piety, contribute silver to help him, and assist him in searching for his father in Shaanxi and Sichuan. At a monastery outside Chengdu, Wang Hui firmly refuses to recognize his son. Soon after, Wang Hui dies. Guo Xiaozizi carries his bones home. On the way, he meets Xiao Yunxian, who persuades him to serve the court. His father also asks Yunxian to join the army under Ping Shaobao. Under Ping Shaobao, Yunxian leads troops to recapture Qingfeng City, builds city walls, repairs water conservancy, reclaims farmland, and establishes schools. Later, he goes to Yingtian Prefecture to serve as the Commander of the Jianghuai Guard, where he meets famous Nanjing scholars like Yu Yude. Crossing the river, he meets Shen Danian, who is sending his daughter Qiongzhi to Yangzhou to marry Song Weifu. However, Song treats her as a concubine, so Qiongzhi escapes alone to Nanjing, writing poems on fans and embroidering to make a living. When runners from Jiangdu County come to arrest her, she is telling her story to Du Shaolinger's wife. She is eventually taken to Jiangdu.

On the boat, a man also goes to Yangzhou. When he arrives home, Tang Zuntai's nephew Tang Liuulai comes to pester him and lures Tang Zuntai's two sons Tang You and Tang Shi to a brothel for drinking. After failing the provincial examination, Tang You and Tang Shi go to their father's post in Zhenyuan Prefecture, where the Miao people are in rebellion. Tang suppresses the rebellion but is demoted by three ranks. The father and sons return home together. Tang Zuntai invites Yu Te to teach his sons, but Yu Te declines and goes to Wuhuozhou for the autumn winds. Unexpectedly, a private manslaughter case occurs. Due to an error in the official document writing "Gongsheng Yu Chi" instead of "Gongsheng Yu Chi," his brother Yu Chi is implicated, and the case is resolved through confusion.

Yu Te goes to Nanjing, where he joins gatherings with contemporary celebrities like Du Shaolinger. But soon Yu Yude goes to Zhejiang, and Yu Te returns to Wuhe, where he is invited by Yu Huaxuan to teach his son, then selected as the训导 (xun dao) of the Huizhou Prefectural School. The old scholar Wang Yun comes to pay respects to his teacher, whom Yu Te greatly respects. Wang had encouraged his third daughter to follow her husband in death but later felt regret and went to Nanjing. In Nanjing, accompanied by Deng Zhifu, he goes to the Tai Bo Temple to pay respects but does not meet the Nanjing celebrities.

Soon after, Wu Shu returns to Nanjing and is about to return the visit to Deng Zhifu when he is invited by Han Hanlin to be a guest. The guest is Wanzhongshu, but he is an impostor. When the matter is exposed, fortunately, Feng Silaoda helps him. Qin Zhongshu spends silver to donate a real position of Zhongshu. Feng Silaoda sends Wanzhongshu back to Zhejiang,顺便 (shunbian) asking his friend Chen Zhenggong in Hangzhou to repay a debt for travel expenses back to Nanjing. However, Chen Zhenggong has been cheated of his silver by Mao Erhuzi. Feng Silaoda helps him recover the silver and returns to Nanjing to report to Qin Zhongshu. But Qin Zhongshu is with Chen Silaoge at the prostitute Piniang's place.

Soon after, Qin Zhongshu goes to the capital to fill his position, and Chen Silaoge goes to Fujian to find his cousin Xu Jiugongzi. Piniang is forced by the madam to become a nun. The son of Chen Hefu also becomes a monk but quarrels endlessly with the fortune-teller Ding Shi. At this time, several extraordinary people appear in Nanjing's marketplace: Ji Xianian who writes characters, Wang Tai who sells paper firecrackers, Gai Kuan who runs a teahouse, and Jing Yuan who is a tailor. They rely on their skills to support themselves, differing from the celebrities who appeared earlier.

Cultural Significance

The Scholars holds a significant place in Chinese literary history for several reasons. First, it represents a milestone in the development of the Chinese novel, particularly in its realistic portrayal of society and its sophisticated use of satire. Unlike earlier novels that focused on historical events or supernatural elements, The Scholars presents a panoramic view of contemporary society through the lens of the scholar-official class.

The novel's critique of the imperial examination system was groundbreaking. By exposing how the system corrupted scholars' integrity and distorted their values, Wu Jingzi challenged one of the most fundamental institutions of imperial China. The famous "Fan Jin Zhongju" (范进中举, Fan Jin passes the provincial examination) episode, where Fan becomes ecstatically mad upon passing the examination, has become a cultural touchstone symbolizing the absurd pressures of the examination system.

The novel also introduced innovative narrative techniques. Rather than following a single protagonist throughout, The Scholars employs a "chain-link" structure where characters from one story appear in subsequent stories, creating a tapestry of interconnected narratives. This technique would influence later Chinese novels.

Modern Status

Today, The Scholars is regarded as one of the "Four Great Classical Novels" of Chinese literature alongside Dream of the Red Chamber, Journey to the West, and Water Margin. It is widely studied in Chinese schools and universities as a masterpiece of social criticism and satire. The novel has been translated into numerous languages, with English translations including Yang Hsien-yi and Gladys Yang's The Scholars and David Wakefield's The Scholars.

The novel's influence extends beyond literature into Chinese popular culture. Characters like Fan Jin and Yan Gongsheng have become archetypes in Chinese consciousness, and the novel's critique of academic corruption and social climbing remains relevant in contemporary discussions about education and social mobility.

In recent years, The Scholars has been adapted into various media forms, including television series, films, and stage plays. Its enduring popularity attests to Wu Jingzi's masterful storytelling and his insightful critique of human nature and social institutions that transcends time and cultural boundaries.

References

1. Wu, C. Z. (1957). The Scholars (Yang Hsien-yi & Gladys Yang, Trans.). Foreign Languages Press.
2. Hsia, C. T. (1968). The Classic Chinese Novel. Columbia University Press.
3. Plaks, A. E. (1987). The Four Masterworks of the Ming Novel. Princeton University Press.
4. Wang, D. (1976). The Chinese Novel: A Critical Introduction. Twayne Publishers.
5. Liu, J. Y. (1968). The Art of Chinese Poetry. University of Chicago Press.