Bai Juyi

Overview

Bai Juyi (772-846), courtesy name Letian, was a prominent poet and government official during the Tang dynasty. He is widely regarded as one of the most influential poets in Chinese literary history, known for his accessible style and social consciousness in poetry. Bai served in various official positions throughout his life and produced a vast body of work that continues to be studied and appreciated today. His poetry, particularly his "Yuefu" poems, often addressed social issues and the hardships faced by common people, reflecting his Confucian ideals of serving society.

History

Early Life Amidst Turmoil

Bai Juyi was born on the twentieth day of the first month in the seventh year of the Dali era of Emperor Daizong of Tang (772 CE) in Xinzhen, Henan, into a family of minor bureaucrats with a scholarly tradition. Shortly after his birth, Henan experienced turmoil as Li Zhengji, a regional military governor (fanzhen), controlled more than ten prefectures in the region, plunging the area into war and suffering.

When Bai was two years old, his grandfather, Bai Huang, serving as the magistrate of Gongxian, passed away in Chang'an, followed shortly by his grandmother's death. In the first year of Jianzhong (780 CE), his father, Bai Jigeng, was appointed as the magistrate of Pengcheng County in Xuzhou after serving as a参军 (canjun) in Songzhou. The following year, Bai Jigeng was promoted to 别驾 (biejia) of Xuzhou for his successful defense of the city alongside the prefect Li Wei. In 782 CE, to escape the warfare in Xuzhou, Bai Jigeng sent his family to live in Fuli, Suzhou. In 783 CE, due to the chaos of the "Two Emperors and Four Kings Rebellion" in the Central Plains, Bai's family fled to Yuezhou (modern-day Zhejiang).

In the second year of Zhenyuan (786 CE), Bai learned about the imperial examination system for jinshi degrees while in the south and began studying diligently. In 791 CE, he returned to Fuli. Later, when his father was promoted to biejia of Xiangzhou, Bai accompanied him to Xiangyang. In 794 CE, his father died in Xiangyang, and Bai returned to Fuli to observe the mourning period. In 798 CE, his elder brother Bai Youwen was appointed as the secretary of Fuliang County in Raozhou, and Bai accompanied him there while their family moved to Luoyang. In 800 CE, he traveled from Fuliang to Luoyang to visit his mother. In 802 CE, he entered Chang'an and participated in the examination for the "cai shi jian mao ming yu ti yong ke" in the winter of the same year. The following year, he passed the examination alongside Yuan Zhen and was appointed as a 校书郎 (xiaoshu lang) in the Secretariat.

Early Official Career

In the first year of Yuanhe (806 CE), Bai left his position as xiaoshu lang to prepare for the special imperial examination. Together with Yuan Zhen, he secluded himself for months to research various social and political issues, composing the "Celin" (Seventy-five Essays), many of whose themes would later influence his political stance and poetic views. In April of the same year, he passed the "cai shi jian mao ming yu ti yong ke" examination and was appointed as the county magistrate of Zhouzhi (modern-day Zhouzhi, Shaanxi).

As a lower-ranking official, Bai gained firsthand knowledge of the suffering of common people, and it was during this period that he began writing satirical and admonitory poetry. In 807 CE, he served as an examiner for the jinshi examination and was appointed as a Hanlin academician. The following year, he was promoted to 左拾遗 (zuoshiyi) and married a cousin of Yang Yuqing.

During this period, Bai demonstrated great enthusiasm for political participation, "advising on all shortcomings and remonstrating against all improprieties." He frequently submitted memorials to Emperor Xianzong, advocating for tax relief, rejection of imperial tribute, the release of palace women, and the curbing of eunuch power. He even pointed out the emperor's mistakes to his face. Many of his proposals were accepted, but his directness sometimes displeased the emperor, who once complained to Li Jing: "This young man Bai Juyi, I promoted him to his position, yet he shows me such disrespect. I find it difficult to tolerate." Li Jing, however, interpreted this as a sign of Bai's loyalty and encouraged the emperor to be more open to criticism.

In addition to his political activities, Bai created a large number of admonitory poems represented by the "Ten Poems of Qin Zhong" and the "Fifty New Yuefu Poems," which made "the powerful, noble, and near tremble," "the rulers wring their hands," and "those holding military power gnash their teeth," thereby offending the ruling class.

Exile to Jiangzhou

In the seventh month of the tenth year of Yuanhe (815 CE), Prime Minister Wu Yuanheng was assassinated. Bai indignantly submitted a memorial calling for the strict pursuit of the assassins, which the ruling authorities considered as overstepping his authority (as he was an official of the Crown Prince's household rather than a censor). At this time, someone who had always harbored resentment against Bai accused him of being frivolous and immoral, noting that his mother had fallen into a well while viewing flowers, yet he had written poems about "admiring flowers" and a "new well," which was detrimental to public morality and不宜公开传播 (not suitable for public dissemination).

The authorities, already annoyed by Bai's outspokenness, used this opportunity to recommend his demotion to "governor of Jiangbei." However, the imperial secretary Wang Ya argued that he was unsuitable for governing a prefecture. Consequently, the court further demoted Bai to Sima of Jiangzhou (modern-day Jiujiang, Jiangxi).

During this period, Bai wrote numerous melancholic poems, with "The Pipa Player" being composed during this time. The "New Book of Tang" biography states that "having lost his ambition, he could adapt to his circumstances, entrusting himself to Buddhist teachings of life and death, as if forgetting his physical form." In reality, he was deeply frustrated with the political situation. In the same year of his demotion, he wrote the famous "Letter to Yuan Jiu," clearly and systematically expressing his philosophy of life and poetic principles.

Although Bai's mother had died after falling into a well while viewing flowers, Bai had written many poems about flowers before this incident. Moreover, according to Song dynasty records, the "new well" poem was written around the first year of Yuanhe (806 CE), and this poem is now lost. Therefore, this incident could not constitute a valid accusation. The primary reason for his exile was likely his admonitory poems that had offended those in power. The exile to Jiangzhou was a turning point in Bai's life: before this, he had been committed to "benefiting all" (兼济), hoping to make beneficial contributions to the country and its people; after this, his actions gradually shifted to "cultivating oneself" (独善其身), though he still maintained concern for the common people, his expressions of this concern lacked the fervor of his earlier years.

In the thirteenth year of Yuanhe (818 CE), Bai's younger brother Bai Xingjian came to Jiangzhou to reunite with him. When Bai was appointed as the prefect of Zhongzhou, Bai Xingjian accompanied his brother upstream along the river. They met Yuan Zhen at the Yellow Bull Gorge, and the place where the three traveled together was later called "Three Travelers Cave." While serving in Zhongzhou, Bai planted flowers on the eastern hillside of the city and named this place "Dongpo." In the winter of the same year, he was appointed as the prefect of Zhongzhou (modern-day Zhong County, Chongqing), arriving in the fourteenth year of Yuanhe (819 CE).

In the fourteenth year of Yuanhe (819 CE), Bai was recalled to Chang'an and appointed as the external secretary of the Ministry of Personnel. In the fifteenth year of Yuanhe (820 CE), he transferred to the position of director of the Bureau of Guests and was responsible for drafting imperial edicts, with the additional title of Grand Master for Splendid Happiness, wearing a purple robe, serving alongside Yuan Zhen in the "Silk Pavilion" (纶阁).

Service in Suzhou and Hangzhou

In the first year of Changqing (821 CE), Bai was transferred to the position of imperial secretary. However, Emperor Muzong was dissolute and negligent in his duties. Bai repeatedly submitted memorials discussing the handling of the Hebei fanzhen (military governors), but Muzong did not adopt his suggestions. Consequently, Bai requested a provincial appointment and was appointed as the prefect of Hangzhou in the seventh month of the second year of Changqing (822 CE).

During his tenure as prefect of Hangzhou, Bai noticed that six ancient wells in the city had fallen into disrepair and led the dredging of these wells to solve the drinking water problem for the city's residents. He also saw that West Lake was silted up, causing drought in the surrounding farmlands. Therefore, he built dikes to store lake water for irrigation, alleviating the harm caused by drought, and wrote "The Record of the Qiantang Lake Stone," detailing the policies, methods, and precautions for managing the lake, which was carved into stone and placed by the lake for future generations' reference, greatly influencing later water management in Hangzhou. Before leaving his post, Bai left a sum of official salary in the prefectural treasury as a fund for future officials' administrative needs, which was to be replenished later. This fund continued to operate until the Huang Chao Rebellion, when documents were burned and scattered upon Huang Chao's arrival in Hangzhou, and the fund's whereabouts became unknown.

While in Hangzhou, Yuan Zhen was also dismissed from his chancellor position and appointed as the observer of Zhejiang East. As Hangzhou and Zhejiang East were not far apart, the two exchanged numerous poems. They met at the border of their jurisdictions and stayed together for several days before parting. When Bai's term in Hangzhou ended, Yuan Zhen requested all of Bai's works to compile the "Bai氏长庆集" (Collected Works of Bai in the Changqing Reign), consisting of fifty volumes.

During his tenure as prefect of Suzhou, Bai excavated a seven-mile-long mountain river from Tiger Hill to Changmen Gate to facilitate water and land transportation in Suzhou. A road was built along the north bank of this river, called "Seven-Mountain Street" (山塘街). West Lake has a "White Causeway" with willows planted on both banks, later mistakenly believed to have been built by Bai and called "Bai Gong Dike" (Bai's Causeway). In fact, this "White Causeway" existed before Bai arrived in Hangzhou and was then called "White Sandy Causeway" (白沙堤), and it is mentioned in Bai's poems.

Later, when Bai's term in Hangzhou ended, he was appointed as Crown Prince's Left Aide in the Eastern Capital, Luoyang. In the first year of Jingzong's Baoli reign (825 CE), he was transferred to the position of prefect of Suzhou. Later, he resigned due to illness and traveled with Liu Yuxi in the areas of Yangzhou and Chuzhou.

Later Years

In the first year of Taihe (also called Dahe, 827 CE), Emperor Wenzong summoned Bai to the capital and appointed him as the director of the Secretariat, granting him a purple gold fish pouch and a purple robe. On the emperor's birthday in the ninth month, Wenzong summoned Bai, the monk Weicheng, and the Daoist priest Zhao Changying to lecture before the Linde Palace. Bai's explanations were profound, his arguments sharp and unstoppable, and his words clear and smooth, deeply impressing Emperor Wenzong. In the first month of the second year of Taihe (828 CE), he was transferred to the position of vice minister of the Ministry of Justice, enfeoffed as a baron of Jinyang County, with a fief of 300 households. In the spring of the third year of Taihe (829 CE), due to illness, he returned to Ludao Li in Luoyang and requested a position in the branch office, where he was appointed as the Crown Prince's guest.

During the Taihe period, Bai was caught in the struggle between the Niu and Li factions. At that time, Bai's wife was the aunt of Yang Yingshi, who was friendly with Li Zongmin of the Niu faction. Worried that he would be regarded as a member of Li Zongmin's faction and dismissed, Bai requested a position with light responsibilities to avoid disaster. During this period, Bai's official positions were rarely completed, most being terminated due to illness, and he insisted on serving in branch offices, earning praise from discerning individuals. In the fifth year of Taihe (831 CE), he served as the prefect of Henan. In the seventh month of the same year, Yuan Zhen passed away, and Bai wrote his epitaph the following year, donating all the six or hundred thousand yuan he received for this work to the Xiangshan Temple in Luoyang. In the seventh year of Taihe (833 CE), he was again appointed as the Crown Prince's guest in the branch office.

After the "甘露之变" (Ganlu Coup), "the literati were devastated, and the scholarly circles were saddened," and Bai had no further ambition for officialdom. In the first year of Kaicheng (836 CE), he was appointed as the prefect of Tongzhou but declined due to illness and was later appointed as the Crown Prince's junior tutor, enfeoffed as a marquis of Fengyi County, remaining in Luoyang. In the winter of the fourth year of Kaicheng (839 CE), Bai suffered a stroke and was bedridden for several months. He dismissed his concubines such as Fan Su and Man Zi, and wrote his own epitaph, continuing to write poetry even during his illness. In the first year of Huichang (841 CE), he was dismissed as the Crown Prince's junior tutor, and his salary was stopped. In the second year of Huichang (842 CE), Bai retired from his position as minister of the Ministry of Justice, receiving half of his salary.

In his later years, Bai's life mostly reflected his philosophy of "when poor, cultivate oneself" through a life of "leisure and comfort." However, in the fourth year of Huichang (844 CE), at the age of 73, he spent money to dredge the rock shoals obstructing boat traffic in the Longmen area. After completing this work, he wrote the "Two Poems on Opening the Eight Shoals of Longmen with a Preface" as a memento, still reflecting his philosophy of "when successful, benefit all." In his later years, Bai mostly resided in his garden in Ludai Fang, Luoyang, exchanging poems with Liu Yuxi and often traveling in the Longmen area. He wrote "The Pond Side" and "The Biography of the Drunken吟先生" to describe himself. In the fifth year of Huichang (845 CE), at the age of 74, Bai held a "Seven Elders' Meeting" in his residence in Ludai Li, with participants including Hu Ao, Ji Jiao, Zheng Ju, Liu Zhen, Lu Zhen, Zhang Hun, and Bai Juyi. In the summer of the same year, together with the monk Ruman and Li Yuanshuang, the seven elders were depicted in the "Nine Elders' Painting." In his later years, Bai devoutly practiced Buddhism, calling himself "The Drunken吟先生" (The Drunken吟 Master) and "Xiangshan Jushi" (The Hermit of Xiangshan), becoming a disciple of the monk Ruman.

Death in Luoyang

Bai Juyi passed away in Luoyang on the fourteenth day of the eighth month in the sixth year of Huichang (September 8, 846 CE), at the age of 75. He was posthumously granted the title of Right Executive of the Secretariat and buried on Xiangshan in Luoyang. After his death, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang (Li Chen) wrote a poem in his memory (see "Historical Evaluation" section). Later, at the request of his cousin Bai Minzhong, Bai was posthumously honored with the title "Wen" (Cultured).

Key Information

Cultural Significance

Bai Juyi's poetry had a profound impact on Chinese literature and culture. As one of the most prolific poets of the Tang dynasty, he produced nearly 3,000 poems that continue to be studied and appreciated today. His poetry is characterized by its accessibility, social consciousness, and emotional depth, making it widely popular both during his lifetime and in subsequent centuries.

Bai's emphasis on "poetry for the times" and "poetry for the people" represented a significant shift in Chinese literary tradition. He believed that poetry should serve a social function, addressing the concerns of ordinary people and critiquing social injustices. This approach influenced generations of poets and helped shape the development of vernacular literature in China.

His works also had a significant impact on other art forms. Many of his poems were set to music and performed as songs during the Tang dynasty. Later, his poems inspired countless paintings, calligraphic works, and theatrical performances. The themes and characters in his poetry continue to resonate in contemporary Chinese culture.

Bai's influence extended beyond China to neighboring countries such as Japan and Korea, where his works were studied and emulated by local poets. His emphasis on accessibility and emotional expression helped shape literary traditions throughout East Asia.

Modern Status

Today, Bai Juyi is celebrated as one of China's greatest poets. His works are studied in schools throughout China and East Asia, and his poetry continues to be translated into numerous languages. Scholars continue to research and analyze his work, exploring its literary, historical, and philosophical significance.

In modern Chinese culture, Bai is often regarded as a model for the socially engaged intellectual. His commitment to using literature to address social issues and his ability to create works that are both artistically significant and accessible to ordinary readers make him a particularly relevant figure in contemporary discussions about literature's social role.

Several sites associated with Bai Juyi have been preserved as cultural heritage sites, including his former residence in Luoyang and the Xiangshan Temple where he spent his later years. These sites attract numerous visitors each year, who come to learn about the poet's life and work.

In popular culture, Bai Juyi has been portrayed in films, television dramas, and novels. His life and works continue to inspire contemporary artists, writers, and musicians. His most famous poems, such as "The Pipa Player" and "The Song of Everlasting Regret," remain among the most frequently anthologized and studied works in Chinese literature.

References

1. Owen, Stephen. (1981). The Great Age of Chinese Poetry: The High Tang. Yale University Press.
2. Hightower, James R. (1952). The Poetry of T'ang Ching-shih: Kutsen, 772-846. Harvard-Yenching Institute.
3. Chaves, Jonathan. (1996). The Columbia Book of Later Chinese Poetry: Yuan, Ming, and Ching Dynasties (1279-1911). Columbia University Press.
4. Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. (2009). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. Cambridge University Press.
5. Mair, Victor H. (2001). The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. Columbia University Press.