Book of Rites

Overview

The Book of Rites (Chinese: 《礼记》; pinyin: Lǐ Jì), also known as the Classic of Rites, is a collection of texts describing the social forms, administration, and ceremonial rites of ancient China. It was compiled during the Western Han Dynasty by Dai Sheng from earlier works and is one of the Five Classics of Confucianism. The original work contained 46 chapters, but due to the length of three chapters—"Quli," "Tan Gong," and "Za Ji"—most versions were divided into upper and lower parts, resulting in the 49-chapter version that has come down to us. The text is divided into four main categories: records of ceremonial details, explanations of the significance of the Rites of Zhou, interpretations of specific chapters from the Book of Rites, and accounts of particular systems and government decrees.

History

According to tradition, the Book of Rites was originally composed by Confucius's 72 disciples and their students. The "Six Classics" taught by Confucius—the Book of Odes, Book of Documents, Book of Rites, Book of Music, Book of Changes, and Spring and Autumn Annals—were considered the highest philosophical carriers of classical Chinese culture. However, these texts were written in archaic language with obscure meanings, making them difficult to understand. Consequently, numerous commentaries were written to aid comprehension.

The "Rites" in the Six Classics later became known as the Book of Etiquette (Chinese: 《仪礼》; pinyin: Yí Lǐ), which primarily recorded the "rites" (ceremonial procedures) of Zhou dynasty ceremonies like capping, marriage, funerals, and sacrifices. However, due to its format limitations, it rarely addressed the "meaning" (Chinese: 礼义; pinyin: lǐ yì) behind these rituals. Without understanding this meaning, ceremonies would become meaningless empty formalities.

During the Qin Dynasty's "Burning of Books and Burying of Scholars" (Chinese: 焚书坑儒; pinyin: fén shū kēng rú), many "records" were lost. Nevertheless, the Western Han Dynasty still saw numerous "records" written in pre-Qin ancient script. The Book of Han (Chinese: 《汉书》; pinyin: Hàn Shū) records that there were 131 such "records" in the Bibliographic Treatise (Chinese: 《艺文志》; pinyin: Yì Wén Zhì). The Book of Sui (Chinese: 《隋书》; pinyin: Suí Shū) states that these texts were collected by Marquis of Hejian (Chinese: 河间献王; pinyin: Héjiān Xiàn Wáng) from common people. When Liu Xiang examined the classics, he obtained additional texts such as the Record of Yin-Yang in the Ming Hall, Confucius's Records of the Three Court Audiences, Record of Master Wang Shi, and Record of Music, increasing the total to 214 chapters.

Due to the large number and varying quality of these texts, two edited versions emerged during the Eastern Han Dynasty: one by Dai De containing 85 chapters (known as the Great Book of Rites or Chinese: 《大戴礼记》; pinyin: Dà Dài Lǐ Jì), and another by his nephew Dai Sheng containing 49 chapters (known as the Small Book of Rites or Chinese: 《小戴礼记》; pinyin: Xiǎo Dài Lǐ Jì). The Great Book of Rites did not circulate widely; although Lu Bian of the Northern Zhou Dynasty wrote a commentary on it, its decline continued, and by the Tang Dynasty, most of it was lost. The Small Book of Rites, however, flourished due to the excellent commentary by Zheng Xuan and became widely circulated, eventually being referred to simply as the "Book of Rites."

Key Information

Cultural Significance

The Book of Rites holds profound significance in Chinese cultural and intellectual history. It provides comprehensive insights into the ritual, social, and political thought of ancient China, particularly during the Zhou Dynasty. The text has influenced Chinese society, governance, and ethical thought for over two millennia.

Philosophical Thought

The cosmology of the Book of Rites, primarily reflected in chapters such as "Doctrine of the Mean," "The Commonwealth Rites," "Record of Music," and "Sacrifice at the Suburban Altar," reflects the broader development of pre-Qin Confucian cosmology. The concept of "Tian" (Heaven) in the text has multiple dimensions:

1. From a natural perspective, "Tian" encompasses various natural phenomena and the cosmos composed of basic elements, with humans participating within this framework.
2. "Tian" represents a transcendent, divine existence. While containing objective necessity, it cannot be reduced to mere objectivity, serving as the source of values, as expressed in the Doctrine of the Mean: "What Heaven imparts to man is called human nature."
3. The "Way of Heaven" (Tian Dao) is the source from which the "Way of Man" (Ren Dao) derives, making the former the model for the latter to emulate.

The text also explores the relationship between humans and heaven, emphasizing that while humans can "know" heaven through self-cultivation, heaven retains its transcendence. This relationship is not merely linear but involves both ontological connection between humans and heaven and practical recognition of heaven's transcendence.

The Book of Rites also addresses the relationship between "heart" (xin) and "body" (shen), considering the heart as primary and the body as dependent yet integral. This relationship is likened to that between ruler and subject, where the ruler is the heart and the people are the body.

Educational Thought

The educational philosophy of the Book of Rites, particularly in "The Great Learning" and "Record of Learning," has had lasting influence on Chinese education.

"The Great Learning" outlines the purpose, tasks, and steps of education, proposing a complete program of political and moral education. It establishes the "Three Aims": "illuminating the bright virtue," "loving the people," and "abiding in the highest good." To achieve these aims, it proposes the "Eight Steps": investigating things, extending knowledge, making the will sincere, rectifying the mind, cultivating the person, regulating the family, governing the state, and bringing peace to the world. These steps form an interconnected process, constituting the Confucian system of moral education.

"Record of Learning," the earliest Chinese theoretical treatise on education, provides a comprehensive summary of pre-Qin educational thought. It addresses:

1. The function and purpose of education: serving political governance with the goals of training rulers and transforming the people into law-abiding citizens.
2. The educational system and school management: proposing a system of schools from central to local levels and outlining a complete teaching process with assessment standards.
3. Principles of teaching: emphasizing the importance of timely teaching, the proper relationship between teacher and student, and the dangers of rigid teaching methods.

Modern Status

Today, the Book of Rites remains a significant text in Confucian studies and Chinese cultural heritage. It is studied by scholars worldwide for its insights into ancient Chinese society, philosophy, and governance. Several of its chapters, particularly "The Great Learning," "Doctrine of the Mean," and "Record of Learning," are part of the "Four Books" that became the core of the imperial civil service examination system and continue to be studied in Confucian educational contexts.

The text has been translated into numerous languages, with English translations by scholars such as James Legge and more recently by John Chaffee and others. It continues to be referenced in discussions of Chinese ethics, social organization, and educational philosophy.

References

1. Legge, James. The Li Ki. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1885.
2. Riegel, Jeffrey. "The Organization of the Rites Classic (Liji)." In Early Chinese Religion: Part One: Shang Through Han (1250 BC-220 AD), edited by John Lagerwey and Marc Kalinowski, 181-197. Leiden: Brill, 2009.
3. Nylan, Michael. The Five "Confucian" Classics. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001.
4. Creel, Herrlee G. Chinese Thought from Confucius to Mao Tse-tung. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953.
5. Chen, Fong. "The Book of Rites and the Construction of the Confucian Ideal Society." Journal of Chinese Philosophy 38, no. 3 (2011): 451-468.